Holism vs. Mechanism in Defining Totalities

Holism vs. Mechanism in Defining Totalities Science, as ordinarily understood, is concerned with those phenomena revealed through the five senses, particularly tha eyes. From a host of observations on instruments of various sorts, the physicist infers the existence of electrons, atoms and so forth. But each of us has another sort of knowledge of one special part of the universe, of one special phenomenon of the universe, namely himself (Birch 229). Much debate has centered around the dichotomy of wholes and parts from as early as Democritus (5th century BCE) and Aristotle (4th century BCE). Democritean and Aristotelian philosophies have each had their favor during parts of history. Aristotle was the earliest systematic biologist and, following an encyclopedic treatment of his personal observations on around 500 different types of animals (Swanson 23), he found as the most striking character of biological phenomena its finalism. He later extended this concept into a teleological philosophy, and although he did eventually introduce the concept of a causal necessity, the main conclusion emerging from his analysis was that by far the most important cause in biological and physical phenomena is the final cause (Montalenti 20). His was the most widely accepted view in the West for many centuries due mainly to Aquinas. Dante, for instance, reproaches Democritus for having attributed the world to the mere work of chance (inf., IV, 131, 136). Although that was not altogether precise, for the medieval Aristotelian it came down to the same thing: how can one attempt to explain the harmony of the world without resorting to final causes? Democritus, in turn, presented the West with a much valued causal interpretation of nature. For Democritus, all things resulted from the movement and interactions between atoms, soul atoms being simply a somewhat more subtle version of the others (Reeves 58). The debate between Democritean and Aristotelian points of views in science and the philosophy of the sciences centers around the question of whether novelties occur or whether all phenomena can be explained as resulting purely from elementary interactions. Both views stand on weak foundations on their own. ‘Reductionism’, as it is often called, aims at explaining the universe 1) without consorting to a fundamental notion of functionally irreducible units, and 2) by outlining the behavior and interaction between what have been shown to be probabilistic – rather than deterministic – elementary particles. In response to that view, Polanyi states that the mechanistic explanation of the universe is a meaningless ideal. Not because of the much invoked Principle of Indeterminacy, which is irrelevant, but because the prediction of all atomic positions in the universe would not answer any question of interest to anybody (41-42). But ‘holism’ does not have it easy either. It can not cling to intuitive notions (i.e. vitalism) and must make amends with the fact that matter is what there is and what ultimately forms the complexities around us – as well as ourselves. The question is, do we have the right concept of matter? In 1926 J.C. Smuts called for a reform of the concept of matter, stating that the acceptance of the view for which the materialists fought so hard means in effect a complete transformation of the simple situation which they envisaged; since matter is capable of life and consciousness, [it] is no longer the old matter which was merely the vehicle of motion and energy (10). This view is akin to Birch’s account of a lecture in which Professor W.E. Agar said â€Å"a few thousand million years ago there was primeval chaos, and now, here we are, and I think few people can really sustain a belief that a universe which produced life and man requires no different kind of explanation than would be demanded by a universe which did not do so† (Birch 230). In 1843, J.S. Mill sought to develop a middle way through what came to be known as ‘emergence’: the idea that material complexity leads to the emergence of novel properties, and that properties belonging to a system’s components may become suppressed at these higher levels of integration. It remains a matter of debate whether emergent properties may have any causal power within a system. William Hasker believes so; he maintains that although mental properties emerge from the brain and are inseparable from it, conscious properties are not logical consequences of any combination of properties and of relations between the material constituents of the brain. He further maintains that a new individual entity emerges of a certain functional configuration of the material constituents of the brain and nervous system, endowed with libertarian freedom (230). Perhaps the fact that our knowledge of elemental particles weakened rather than reinforced the Democritean ideal, we find a number of quantum physicists taking seriously the notion of irreducible unity. Schrà ¶dinger postulates that the best possible knowledge of a whole does not necessarily include the best possible knowledge of all its parts, even though they may be entirely separate and therefore virtually capable of being best possibly known, i.e., of possessing, each of them, a representative of its own. The lack of knowledge is by no means due to the interaction being insufficiently known - at least not in the way that it could possibly be known more completely - it is due to the interaction itself (Schrà ¶dinger 555). David Bohm, in turn, argues that all action is in the form of definite and measurable units of energy, momentum and other properties called quanta which cannot be further divided†¦ [Thus,] when particles interact, it is as if they were all connected by i ndivisible links into a single whole† (90) It might be, as Laszlo views it, that contemporary science has tacitly abandoned the notion of isolated particulars as its units of investigation, and now concerns itself with ordered totalities (Laszlo 2). However, in a world made up of systems within systems, totalities are not easily defined. One very good definition of unities is given to us by Maturana and Varela under the term autopoiesis – self-production or self-creation. Autopoiesis seeks to convey autonomy as the central feature of the organization of â€Å"living autopoietic machines, which they define as a network of processes of production (transformation and destruction) of components that produces the components which†¦ regenerate and realize the network of processes (relations) that produced them; and†¦ constitute it†¦ as a concrete unity (Maturana and Varela 79).

The Night Nurse essays

The Night Nurse essays Grace has many meanings in the English language today. One of these meanings is to be pardoned from ones actions. In The Night Nurse, by Joyce Carol Oates, Grace Burkhardt is pardoned many times in her life. She is pardoned from dying, pardoned from her actions toward others, and eventually pardons herself from her actions. In life, we are given grace, a pardon for our actions, many times, The first example of grace being given is Grace Burkhardts life being saved physically. She could have died, but was instead saved, and was given more time to live. The doctors saved her life, not because they chose her, but because of their job. Grace was not pardoned by the doctors, but by God, who allowed her to live a while longer on the earth. She would have died from pulmonary embolism, had she not been saved by the doctors. Pulmonary embolism would have been caused by a massive blood clot in her leg which, had it broken free would have been carried to her heart, and would have killed her instantly. Instead of dying, at this place and time, Grace is given more time to I have experienced this type of grace many times throughout my life. Although when I first received this grace, I may have not known I was receiving it. A few instances of when I have been shown grace, is while I was driving. I took gravel roads to school, and Ive had my share of ditches. I have been shown grace in that I have never been hurt. And the car that I was driving has never been damaged. Instead of coming out of the accident with no injuries, I could have had really serious injuries, or not have come out at all. There have been many deaths in my high school because of gravel roads, and I could have been one of those deaths, had I not been given grace to continue living. The second example of Grace receiving grace ...

In what ways do fictional representations of British travellers abroad Essay

In what ways do fictional representations of British travellers abroad serve to challenge fixed notions of British national identity - Essay Example As such, they are intended to bring about a specific change or reform in addition to relating an enjoyable tale. A brief understanding of the journeys of Gulliver and Crusoe respectively illustrates the changes these characters undergo throughout the course of their stories, exposing the intended satire intertwined within the work and illuminating some of our fixed notions regarding British national identity. In each story, the travels undertaken by the main character have a great deal to do with the type of growth they experience. Gulliver, for example, makes four separate voyages, each time meeting a different kind of people. His first encounter is with the Lilliputians who, although they are very tiny compared to himself, nevertheless impress him with their technological achievements. Despite this, he soon realizes that outward appearances are not necessarily reflected on the inside as the Lilliputians squabble over such small matters as which side of an egg should be cracked or how high a heel should be worn. His second voyage takes him to the land of the Brobdingnag, who are giants compared to Gulliver. They treat him as a beast or, at best, a unique pet and, despite their size, Gulliver learns that bigger doesn’t always mean better, smarter or wiser when he gains the opportunities to see them at court and realizes not even the king has an understanding of politics. His third voyage takes him to Laputa. On this trip, he learns that highly educated doesn’t necessarily equate with sensible, historical figures were not always heroic and age does not always bring wisdom. Finally, on his fourth voyage, Gulliver loses the last of his innocent assumptions when he finds that men are the most base creatures of the land of the Houyhnhnms. Robinson Crusoe also goes through a series of events in which he is forced to learn more about himself and illuminates the British identity. The book begins with a quick summary

The representation of savagery and civilization Term Paper

The representation of savagery and civilization - Term Paper Example The American civilization for example, was a combination of European immigrant new technology in terms of superior weaponry farming and international trade technology. It therefore easily overpowered that native technology of bows, arrows and constant migration of Native American tribes. This paper sets out to distinguish between the concepts of savagery and civilization with reference to the contribution of a number of primary sources who have tackled this topic in the past. Perspectives of Primary Sources on Savagery and Civilization In the Descent of man, Darwin describes as native the communities that were to be found in the Western Frontier during the expansion of American rule. He makes the assertion that reproductive power is lower in barbarons or savages than in civilized people (Darwin 45). This was an attempt to compare a purely biological process [reproduction] in people who had attained different levels of civilization. It is clear from the argument in the paper that Darw in is actually talking about mortality rate or reproductive rate. This is because he goes further to argue that because of the poor living conditions, the barbarons have a lower rate of survival. However he goes further to allege that savages appear to be â€Å"less prolific that civilized people† (Darwin, 46). Among the reasons given for the low population levels among the savages are wars with neighbors, a tendency to wander from place to place that endangers the lives of infants, diseases, famine and lack of water. Darwin also states that infanticide is a major cause of depopulation since the savages would rather kill children, especially girls, in an attempt to keep down the population levels (Darwin, 46). Another great blight of colonialism was slavery. Arguments that some cultures were superior to others and civilized persons were much more superior to native savages fuelled the slave trade. This trade ensured that some people were subhuman as they had not undergone the full extent of development in the process of natural selection. According to Darwin certain humans were a sub species of the human species (Darwin 175). Humans therefore shamelessly traded in other humans like commodities. They owned them, made them work and then sold them up to other owners. However, Darwin’s allegations have since been challenged by later day scholars who termed some of Darwin’s assertions as inadequate, presumptive and not supported by irrefutable evidence. Among the scholars who disagree is Fredrick Jackson Turner who refers to the civilization of America as meeting of minds between the European settlers and the American native life (Turner, 3). He goes further to describe how the European had to adjust to the American life by planting corn, using the birch canoe to travel and even adopting the native Indian war cry in order to survive. He acknowledges that the European brought with him some superior technology including the gun and train, but the se alone were not enough for his survival as the environment proved too tough unless he adjusted (Turner, 4). According to him, therefore, it is the combination of cultures that brings about civilization rather than a single purist culture (Turner, 4). The contribution of these arguments towards colonialism was that colonists always argued that they were bringing forth a new

Marketing Planning and Strategy (Ethical Challenge) 1 Assignment

Marketing Planning and Strategy (Ethical Challenge) 1 - Assignment Example ntation may however target physically disabled people and people with health problems in order to determine involved costs and risk in product delivery for determining prices. This may harm members of the target population by subjecting them to higher prices based on their special needs. Raju (2009) argues that segmentation helps to meet needs of special groups but the associated disadvantage of cost may lead to greater harm than if products were offered without segmentation and prices remained uniform. In addition, such segmentation may for a basis for identification of the challenges facing the groups and therefore expose them to stigma. Consequently, targeting the physically disabled or people with help problems, with the aim of meeting their special needs at higher costs, are a violation of ethical practices. Targeting the segments in insurance coverage is an example. The segmentation may induce higher cover cost and limit the group’s ability to afford cover and access car e. In addition, the segmentation may create the impression that the segment have poor health and induce stigma against members of the segment to worsen their welfare through induced emotional instability (Brenkert and Beauchamp,

International Political Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

International Political Economy - Essay Example Gates must remain the exception, and openness the rule† made the article liberal in its orientation of what economic outlook should nations adopt. In the process of arguing that liberal capitalism is still the best form of capitalism and economic system, the article also discussed the various economic models that were used by other countries. The article has acknowledged the weakness and flaw of globalisation beginning at the 1930s until more recently during the financial crisis. But unlike in the 1930s where there was a clear and coherent ideological and economic alternatives such as fascism and Marxism, none can be found in recent anti-globalisation protesters China is cited as an example but the Chinese model did not present an alternative economic model to liberal capitalism. It may be ruled by the Communist Party but its economic model cannot be classified as Marxist. Marxist economic model involves the ownership of the state of all modes of production from land, labour, capital to technology where private ownership is prohibited. It does resemble to Marxist’s close kin which is fascism where the owners of the modes of production are required to use their properties in the national interest and the products that will be produced are dictated by one autocratic party (Richman, 2008). There may be just one party that rules in China but it is still not enough to qualify it as a fascist nor a Marxist government and economic system. It can be more aptly classified as nationalist economy where private ownership and foreign capital is allowed for as long as it is beneficial to the government. China, Russia and the world have already learned that state planning and state ownership of the modes of production does not work. The need of the people is just too complex and too vast for any state to determine and respond that we saw the inevitable collapse of the former Soviet Russia. So is the isolationist nature of Communism as

Industrial Crane Accidents Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Industrial Crane Accidents - Essay Example To date, many reports relay crane-related accidents that could have been avoided if safety regulations were carefully considered. Industrial crane operators are required to apply strict safety procedures to carry out their job properly. Several regulations have been existent internationally to prevent accidents and hazards in every industrial workplace. Nevertheless, the current literature reflects a number of accidents related to the use of cranes in many workplaces around the world, both on land and offshore (i.e., gas mining platforms). Therefore, it is important to consider how such accidents have occurred in order to promote safety in the industrial workplace. Industrial crane accidents can happen anytime if workers practice negligence. The complex and heavy structure of the crane implies the high demand for safety during operation in the workplace. Relevantly, only certified workmen can handle industrial cranes, thus workers who would like to be crane operators should undergo t he specific training for operating cranes and other similar machines. A simple negligence on the part of the operator could lead to accidents, and later on, to permanent disability and even deaths. In such cases, the company will be held liable for the loss, not just the operator or the driver concerned could lose his job if the results of the investigations suggest negligence on his part. However, crane accidents have more bearing on the company because the company has the sole liability in such cases. A number of cases of negligence can be found in the literature, pointing either to the company or the crew as the one at fault. For instance, Jerner (2010) reports about a crane accident in which the crane boom separated from the mobile carrier. Based on the investigations, the turntable bearing did not function properly because it was improperly placed and showed signs of being worn out. Notably, the first problem that reveals improper placing of the turntable could be attributed to the staff, whereas the second cause, which is the worn out characteristics of the turntable implies the liability of the company. The use of old and worn out turntable can be attributed to the company’s cost-cutting measures. In another accident report by Jerner (2010), the same problem of substandard crane parts was detected as the bolts of the boom attached to three crane boom sections broke, thus separating the attached sections from the main boom. The accident occurred during operation as the crane was used to remove a water tank crane boom from a water tower. Although there were no casualties, the accident expectedly caused delay in the company’s operation. In a report made by the Iowa FACE Program (n.d.) of a 1997 accident that occurred in a wind farm in Iowa, the author noted the shifting of the tower-type crane whose outrigger pad slid to the northwest, leading to the death of the 36-year–old crane operator. The crew was about to install generators on a windmill when the accident happened. The owner of the mill, who was situated perpendicular to the windmill and saw the whole accident reported that the crane was tilted a little before the accident happened.